Evaluating Alternative Fuel Vehicles from Technical, Environmental and Economic Perspectives: Case of Light-Duty Vehicles in Iran

Authors: Vahid Aryanpur , Ehsan Shafiei

Abstract:

This paper presents an environmental and technoeconomic evaluation of light duty vehicles in Iran. A comprehensive well-to-wheel (WTW) analysis is applied to compare different automotive fuel chains, conventional internal combustion engines and innovative vehicle powertrains. The study examines the competitiveness of 15 various pathways in terms of energy efficiencies, GHG emissions, and levelized cost of different energy carriers. The results indicate that electric vehicles including battery electric vehicles (BEV), fuel cell vehicles (FCV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) increase the WTW energy efficiency by 54%, 51% and 46%, respectively, compared to common internal combustion engines powered by gasoline. On the other hand, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per kilometer of FCV and BEV would be 48% lower than that of gasoline engines. It is concluded that BEV has the lowest total cost of energy consumption and external cost of emission, followed by internal combustion engines (ICE) fueled by CNG. Conventional internal combustion engines fueled by gasoline, on the other hand, would have the highest costs.

Keywords: Well-to-Wheel analysis, Energy Efficiency, GHG emissions, Levelized cost of energy, Alternative fuel vehicles.

Digital Object Identifier (DOI): doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1058769

References:

[1] O. V. Vliet, M. V. Broek, W. Turkenburg and A. Faaij, "Combining hybrid cars and synthetic fuels with electricity generation and carbon capture and storage," Energy Policy, vol. 39, pp. 248-268, Jan. 2011.
[2] Ministry of Energy of Iran, Office of Energy and Power Affairs, "Energy balance of Iran in 2008 (Available in Persian)," 2010.
[3] Iranian Fuel Conservation Company (IFCO), "Transportation and energy data book (Available in Persian)," 2009.
[4] J. Barkenbus, "Our electric automotive future: CO2 savings through a disruptive technology," Policy and Society, vol. 27, pp. 399-410, 2009
[5] International Energy Agency (IEA), "Technology roadmap: electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles," 2009.
[6] C. Samaras and K. Meisterling, "Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from plug-in hybrid vehicles: implications for policy," Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 42, pp. 3170-3176, Apr. 2008.
[7] Energy Independence Now, "How do hydrogen fuel cell vehicles compare in terms of emissions and energy use? A well-to-wheel analysis," Available at: www.hydrogenhighway.ca.gov/facts/einwelltowheel.pdf, Last accessed Aug. 2011.
[8] S. Soimakallio, T. Makinen, T. Ekholm, K. Pahkala, H. Mikkola and T. Paappanen, "Greenhouse gas balances of transportation biofuels, electricity and heat generation in Finland- Dealing with the uncertainties," Energy Policy, vol. 37 pp. 80-90, Jan. 2009.
[9] M. A. Kromer and J. B. Heywood, "Electric powertrains: Opportunities and challenges in the U.S. light-duty vehicle fleet," Sloan Automotive Laboratory, Laboratory for Energy and the Environment, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), May 2007.
[10] C.E. Sandy Thomas, "Transportation options in a carbon-constrained world: Hybrids, plug-in hybrids, biofuels, fuel cell electric vehicles, and battery electric vehicles," International journal of hydrogen energy, vol. 34, pp. 9279-9296, 2009.
[11] R. T. Doucette and M. D. McCulloch, "Modeling the prospects of plugin hybrid electric vehicles to reduce CO2 emissions," Applied Energy, vol. 88, pp. 2315-2323, 2011.
[12] C. Thiel, A. Perujo and A. Mercier, "Cost and CO2 aspects of future vehicle options in Europe under new energy policy scenarios," Energy Policy, vol. 38, pp. 7142-7151, 2010.
[13] X. Ou, X. Zhang and S. Chang, "Scenario analysis on alternative fuel/vehicle for China's future road transport: Life-cycle energy demand and GHG emissions," Energy Policy, vol. 38, pp. 3943-3956, 2010.
[14] A. Veziroglu and R. Macario, "Fuel cell vehicles: State of the art with economic and environmental concerns," International journal of hydrogen energy, vol. 36, pp. 25-43, 2011.
[15] M. Wang, Argonne National Laboratory, "Fuel Cycle analysis of conventional and alternative fuel vehicles," Encyclopedia of Energy, vol. 2, 2004.
[16] C.E. Thomas, "Fuel cell and battery electric vehicles compared," International journal of hydrogen energy, vol. 34, pp. 6005-6020, 2009.
[17] M. Eberhard and M. Tarpenning, "The 21st centuty electric car," Tesla Motors Inc., Oct. 2006.
[18] G.J. Offer, M. Contestabile, D.A. Howey, R. Clague and N.P. Brandon, "Fuel Cycle analysis of conventional and alternative fuel in a future sustainable road transport system in the UK," Energy Policy, vol. 39, pp. 1939-1950. 2011.
[19] O. P.R. van Vliet and T. Kruithof, W. C. Turkenburg and A. P.C. Faaij, "Techno-economic comparison of series hybrid, plug-in hybrid, fuel cell and regular cars," Journal of Power Sources, vol. 195, pp. 6570-6585, 2010.
[20] A. Simpson, "Full-cycle assessment of alternative fuels for light-duty road vehicles in Australia", Proc. World Energy Congress, Sydney, Sep. 2004, Updated Apr. 2005.
[21] N. Brinkman, M. Wang, T. Webber and T. Darlington , "Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Advanced Fuel/Vehicle Systems - A North American Study of Energy Use, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and Criteria Pollutant Emissions," May 2005.
[22] M. P. Hekkert, Franka H. J. F. Hendriks, Andre P. C. Faaij and M. L. Neelis, "Natural gas as an alternative to crude oil in automotive fuel chains Well-to-Wheel analysis and transition strategy development," Energy policy, vol. 33, pp. 579-594, 2005.
[23] J. T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D. J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P. J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell and C. A. Johnson, "Climate change 2001: The scientific bases," Contribution of working group I to the third assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change; published for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
[24] Y. Sun, "Societal lifetime cost comparison of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and gasoline vehicles," Office of Graduate Studies of the University of California, 2010.
[25] R. S. J. Toll, "The marginal damage costs of carbon dioxide emissions: An assessment of the uncertainties, Energy Policy, vol. 33 pp. 2064- 2074., Jun. 2005.
[26] European Commission Joint Research Center (JRC), "Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, Well-to-tank report, Version 2c, Mar. 2007.
[27] R. Choudhury, T. Weber, J. Schindler, W. Weidorf and R. Wurster, "GM Well-to-Wheel Analysis of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Advanced Fuel/Vehicle Systems- A European Study - Results, Sep. 2002.
[28] European Commission Joint Research Center (JRC), "Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, Well-to-tank report, Version 2c, WTT Appendix 4: Available at: http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/uploads/media/Input%20data%20OIL%20&% 20COAL%20181108.xls, Last accessed June 2011.
[29] Ministry of Energy of Iran, Office of Energy and Power Affairs, "Energy Balance of Iran in 2009 (Available in Persian)," 2011.
[30] Iran Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Management Company (TAVANIR), "Electric power industry in Iran" 2010.
[31] European Commission Joint Research Center (JRC), "Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context," Well-to-tank report version 2c, WTT Appendix 4: Available at: http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/uploads/media/Input%20data%20NG%201811 08.xls, Last accessed Jun. 2011.
[32] European Commission Joint Research Center (JRC), "Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context," Well-to-tank report version 2c, WTT Appendix 2: Description and detailed energy and GHG balance of individual pathways, Mar. 2007.
[33] C. Stiller, P. Schmidt, W. Weindorf and Z. Matra, "CNG and LPG for transport in Germany environmental performance and potentials for GHG emission reductions until 2020," Sep. 2010.
[34] International Energy Agency- Energy Technology Systems Analysis Program (IEA-ETSAP), Conventional oil and gas technologies, 2010.
[35] Iran Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution Management Company (TAVANIR).
[36] European Commission Joint Research Center (JRC), Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, Tank-to-wheels report, Version 2c, Mar. 2007.