Cognitive Landscape of Values – Understanding the Information Contents of Mental Representations

Authors: J. Maksimainen

Abstract:

The values of managers and employees in organizations are phenomena that have captured the interest of researchers at large. Despite this attention, there continues to be a lack of agreement on what values are and how they influence individuals, or how they are constituted in individuals- mind. In this article content-based approach is presented as alternative reference frame for exploring values. In content-based approach human thinking in different contexts is set at the focal point. Differences in valuations can be explained through the information contents of mental representations. In addition to the information contents, attention is devoted to those cognitive processes through which mental representations of values are constructed. Such informational contents are in decisive role for understanding human behavior. By applying content-based analysis to an examination of values as mental representations, it is possible to reach a deeper to the motivational foundation of behaviors, such as decision making in organizational procedures, through understanding the structure and meanings of specific values at play.

Keywords: Content-based Approach, Mental Content, Mental Representations, Organizational values, Values

Digital Object Identifier (DOI): doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1082319

References:

[1] J. Maksimainen & P. Saariluoma, "How Human Resource Management and Human Capital Management Influence Corporate Social Responsibility," The International Journal of Knowledge, Culture and Change Management, Vol. 10, 2, pp. 111-126, 2010.
[2] S. Schwartz & W. Bilsky, "Toward a Universal Psychological Structure of Human Values," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 53, 3, pp. 550-562, 1987.
[3] C. Kluckhohn, "Values and Value Orientations in the Theory of Action: An Exploration in Definition and Classification," in T. Parsons & E.A. Shills (eds.), Toward a General Theory of Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 388-433, 1951/1954.
[4] M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values. A Theory of Organization and Change. New York, NY: The Free Press, 1973.
[5] R.H. Kilmann, "Toward a Unique/Useful Concept of Values for Interpersonal Behavior: A Critical Review of the Literature on Value," Psychological Reports, Vol. 48, pp. 939-959, 1981.
[6] G.W. England, "Personal Values Systems of American Managers," Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 10, pp. 107-117, 1967.
[7] W.A. Scott, Values and Organizations. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, 1965.
[8] M. Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes and Values. San Francisco, Washington, London: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1968.
[9] E.A. Locke, "The Nature and Consequences of Job Satisfaction," in M.D. Dunnette (ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, pp. 1297-1349. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976.
[10] E.H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985.
[11] R.M. Jr. Williams, "Change and Stability in Values and Value Systems: A Sociological Perspective," in M. Rokeach (ed.), Understanding Human Values. New York, NY: Free Press, pp. 15-46, 1979.
[12] L. Postman, J.S. Bruner & E. McGinnies, "Personal Values as Selective Factors in Perception," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 43, pp. 142-154, 1948.
[13] W.R. Nord, A.P. Brief, J.M. Atieh & E.M. Doherty, "Work Values and the Conduct of Organizational Behavior," in B. Staw & L. Cummings (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 9, pp. 1-42. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1988.
[14] S. Epstein, "The Stability of Behavior: 1. On Predicting Most of the People Much of the Time," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 37, pp. 1097-1126, 1979.
[15] T.R. Mitchell & W.G. Scott, "America-s Problems and Needed Reforms: Confronting the Ethic of Personal Advantage," Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 4, pp. 23-35, 1990.
[16] T.R. Mitchell & M. O-Neal, "Managing by Values: Is Levi Strauss- Approach Visionary - or Flaky?" Business Week, Aug. 1, pp. 46-52, 1994.
[17] C.A. O-Reilly & J.A. Chatman, "Culture as Social Control: Corporations, Cults and Commitment," in B. Staw & L. Cummings (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 8, pp. 157-200. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1996.
[18] M. Rokeach & S.J. Ball-Rokeach, "Stability and Change in American Values, 1969-1981," in American Psychologist, Vol. 44, pp. 775-784, 1989.
[19] P.E. Connor & B.W. Becker, “Values and the Organization: Suggestions for Research,” Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 18, pp. 550-561, 1979.
[20] P.E. Connor & B.W. Becker, “Personal Values and Management: What Do We Know and Why Don’t We Know More?” Journal of Management Inquiry, Vol. 3, pp. 67-73, 1994.
[21] C. Argyris & D.A. Schön, Organizational Learning. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1978.
[22] P.S. Goodman, E.C. Ravlin & L. Argote, “Current Thinking about Groups: Setting the Stage for New Ideas,” in P.S. Goodman & Associates (eds.), Designing Effective Work Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986.
[23] D.G. Zytowski, “The Concept of Work Values,” Vocational Guidance Quarterly, Vol. 18, pp. 176-186, 1970.
[24] R.G.L. Pryor,“Tracing the Development of the Work Aspect Preference Scale,” Australian Psychologist, Vol. 16, pp. 241-257, 1981.
[25] R.H. Fazio & M.P. Zanna, “Direct Experience and Attitude-Behavior Consistency,” in L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 14, pp. 161-202, 1981.
[26] A. Bandura, Social Learning Theory. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1977.
[27] S.L. Payne, “Organizational Ethics and Antecedents to Social Control Processes,” Academy of Management Review, Vol. 5, pp. 409-414, 1980.
[28] G. Hofstede, “The Cultural Relativity of the Quality of Life Concept,” Academy of Management Review, Vol. 9, pp. 389-398, 1984.
[29] T.M. Jones, “Ethical Decision Making by Individuals in Organizations: An Issue Contingent Model,” Academy of Management Review, Vol. 16, pp. 366-395, 1991.
[30] D.E. Super, “The Work Values Inventory,” in D.G. Zytowski (ed.), Contemporary Approaches to Interest Measurement. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 189-205, 1973.
[31] R.G.L. Pryor, “In Search of a Concept: Work Values,” Vocational Guidance Quarterly, Vol. 27, pp. 250-256, 1979.
[32] T.A. Judge & R.D. Bretz, “Effects of Work Values on Job Choice Decisions,“ Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 77, pp. 261-271, 1992.
[33] M.A. Brown, “Values – A Necessary but Neglected Ingredient of Motivation on the Job,” Academy of Management Review, Vol. 3, pp. 15-23, 1976.
[34] G.K. Saul, “Business Ethics: Where Are We Going?” Academy of Management Review, Vol. 6, pp. 269-276, 1981.
[35] J. Maksimainen, Aspects of Values in Human-Technology Interaction Design – A Content-Based View to Values. University of Jyväskylä: Jyväskylä Studies in Computing, 144, 2011.
[36] D. Koehn, The Ground of Professional Ethics. London: Routledge, 1994.
[37] E. Levinas, Entre Nous: On Thinking-of-the-Other. Transl. M. B. Smith & B. Harshav. London: Athlone Press, 1998.
[38] K. Nevala, Content-Based Design Engineering Thinking. In the Search for Approach. University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä: Jyväskylä Studies in Computing 60, 2005.
[39] N.P. Suh, The Principles of Design. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1990.
[40] U. Lindemann, Methodische Entwicklung Technischer Producte. Berlin: Springer, 2005.
[41] P. Saariluoma & K. Nevala, “The Focus of Content-Based Approach to Design Engineering – A Reply to Eder,” AEDS Workshop Proceedings, University of Western Bohemia: Pilsen, pp. 105-110, 2006.
[42] P. Saariluoma, K. Nevala & M. Karvinen, ”Content-Based Analysis of Modes in Design Engineering,” J.S. Gero (ed.) Design, Computing and Cognition ’06, The Netherlands: Springer, pp. 325-344, 2006.
[43] P. Saariluoma, K. Kaario, K. Miettinen & M.M. Mäkelä, ”Mental Contents in Interacting with a Multi-Objective Optimization Program,” International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, Vol. 4, pp. 43-67, 2008.
[44] H.A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969.
[45] O. Akin, The Psychology of Architectural Design. London: Pion, 1990.
[46] N. Cross, H. Christiaans & K. Dorst, Analyzing Design Activity. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
[47] M. Kavalki & J.S. Gero, ”Strategic Knowledge Differences between an Expert and a Novice Designer,” in. U. Lindeman (ed.) Human Behaviour in Design. Individuals, Teams, Tools. Berlin: Springer, pp. 42-52, 2003.
[48] B. Tversky, “Sketches for Design and Design for Sketches,” in U. Lindemann (ed.) Human Behavior in Design. Individuals, Teams, Tools. Berlin: Springer, pp. 25-41, 2003.
[49] W. Visser, “Dynamic Aspects of Individual Design Activities. A Cognitive Ergonomics Viewpoint,” in U. Lindemann (ed.) Human Behavior in Design. Individuals, Teams, Tools. Berlin: Springer, pp. 87- 96, 2003.
[50] P. Saariluoma, “Apperception and Restructuring in Chess Players’ Problem Solving,” in Gilhooly, K.J., Keane, M.T.G., Logie, R.H. & Erdos, G. (eds.) Lines of thought: Reflections on the Psychology of Thinking, London: Wiley, pp. 41-57, 1990.
[51] P. Saariluoma, Foundational Analysis. London: Routledge, 1997.
[52] P. Saariluoma, “Chess and Content-Oriented Psychology of Thinking,” Psicologia, Vol. 22, pp. 143-164, 2001.
[53] P. Saariluoma, Chess players’ thinking. London: Routledge, 1995.
[54] P. Saariluoma, “Does Classification Explicate the Contents of Concepts?” In I. Pyysiäinen & V. Anttonen (eds.) Current Approaches in the Cognitive Science of Religion. London: Continuum, pp. 229-259, 2002.
[55] P. Saariluoma & I. Maarttola, “Spatial Mental Content and Visual Design,” in J.S. Gero, B. Tversky & T. Purcell (eds.) Visual and Spatial Reasoning in Design II. Sydney: Key Centre of Design Computing and Cognition, University of Sydney, 2001.
[56] P. Saariluoma & I. Maarttola, ”Errors and Functional Reasons in Architectural Design,” Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, Vol. 20, pp. 344-354, 2003a.
[57] P. Saariluoma & I. Maarttola, “Stumbling Blocks in Novice Building Design,” Journal of Architectural and Planning Design, Vol. 20, pp. 344-354, 2003b.
[58] N. Carroll, “Aesthetic Experience. A Question of Content,” in M. Kieran (ed.) Contemporary Debates in Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 69-97, 2006.
[59] A. Newell & H.A. Simon, Human Problem Solving. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972.
[60] D.A. Allport, “Patterns of Actions: Cognitive Mechanisms Are Content Specific,” in G. Claxton (ed.) Cognitive Psychology. New Directions. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp. 26-64, 1980.
[61] D. Broadbent, Perception and Communication. London: Pergamon Press, 1958.
[62] R. Atkinson & R. Shiffrin, “Human Memory. A Proposed System,” in K.W. Spence & J.T. Spence (eds.) The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, Vol. 2, pp. 89-195. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1968.
[63] D.A. Norman, Memory and Attention. An Introduction to Human Information Processing. New York, NY: Wiley & Sons, 1969.
[64] A.D. Baddeley & G. Hitch, “Working Memory,” in G. Bower (ed.) The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, Vol. 8, pp. 47-89. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1974.
[65] D. Billman, “Representations,” in W. Bechtel & G. Graham (eds.) A Companion to Cognitive Science. Malden, Oxford, Victoria: Blackwell, pp. 649-659, 1998.
[66] A.D. Baddeley, “The influence of acoustic and semantic similarity on long-term memory for word sequences,” The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol. 18, 4, pp. 302–309, 1966.
[67] E. Tulving, “Episodic and Semantic Memory,” in E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (eds.) Organization of Memory. New York, NY: Academic Press, pp. 381-403, 1972.
[68] E. Tulving, Elements of Episodic Memory. Oxford & New York, NY: Clarendon Press & Oxford University Press, 1983.
[69] R.L. Solso, The Psychology of Art and the Evolution of the Conscious Brain. Cambridge & London: A Bradford Book & The MIT Press, 2003.
[70] E. Rosch, “Classification of Real-World Objects: Origins and Representations in Cognition,” in P.N. Johnson-Laird & P.C. Wason (eds.),Thinking. Readings in Cognitive Science. Cambridge, London, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, pp. 212-222, 1977.
[71] R. Barrett, Building a Values-Driven Organisation: A Whole System Approach to Cultural Transformation, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, 2006.
[72] R.L. Keeney, “Creativity in Decision Making with Value-Focused Thinking.” Sloan Management Review,Vol. 35, pp. 33-41, 1994.
[73] P. Selznick, Leadership in Administration: A Sociological Interpretation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957.
[74] P. Cappelli, “Is the "Skills Gap" Really About Attitudes?” California Management Review, Vol. 37, pp. 108-124, 1995.
[75] J. Barker, “Tightening the Iron Cage: Concertive Control in Self- Managing Teams,” Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 38, pp. 408-437, 1993.