Faith-Based Humanitarian Intervention: The Catholic Church and the Biafran Refugee Crisis during the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970

Authors: Edidiong Ekefre

Abstract:

The Nigerian Civil War was one of the foremost postcolonial conflicts in West Africa that attracted a serious humanitarian problem due to an unprecedented refugee crisis that affected the Biafran region. Due to its geographical location, the Nigerian government used blockades and starvation as a weapon of war against the Biafran. Faced with strong opposition from the Nigerian government, most humanitarian organizations withdrew their support from Biafra, whose death toll was rapidly growing daily due to starvation, malnutrition, and chronic ailment. Thus, the Catholic Church, a major Christian denomination in Biafra, had to see it as its religious obligation to support the humanitarian needs of the Biafrans. Thus, applying oral history methods with archival research, this paper examines the humanitarian activities of the Catholic Church in the Nigerian civil war. It contends that the Catholic Church was a key player in the humanitarian aspect of the Nigerian civil war. The paper concludes that faith-based humanitarian intervention in the Biafran refugee crisis was essential for the survival of the Biafran war-stricken women and children.

Keywords: Refugee crisis, humanitarian intervention, caritas international, blockades, airlifts, starvation.

References:

[1] Anthony Asuquo (Traditional Ruler), interview by author, Uruan, 22 December 2018.
[2] Charles Ikeme (Catholic priest/Biafran veteran), interview by author, Enugu, 2018.
[3] Lawrence Iyoho (ex-Biafran Pilot), interview by author, Uyo, January 2019.
[4] Augustine Ojeogwe, interview by author, Owerri, December 2018.
[5] Monique Ekpong, interview by author, Ogoja, October 2018.
[6] Philip Efiong, Nigeria and Biafra: My Story (Aba, Business Forum: 2000), 250.
[7] Godwin Alabi-Isama, The Tragedy of Victory: On-the-Spot Account of the Nigeria-Biafra War in the Atlantic Theatre (Ibadan, Spectrum: 2014), 92.
[8] Agatha Ude, interview by author, Enugu, September 2018.
[9] Rose Ekandem (Catholic School Teacher rtd), interview by author, Etinan, December 2018.
[10] Anne Ekandem (Ex-war Refugee), interview by author, Ikot Ekpene, February 2012.
[11] John Omesili, interview by author, Awkuzu, 3 September 2019.
[12] USDSA/PA/HO/E.O./12958, Department of State: A Memorandum for Kissinger from Roger Morris on Political Initiatives in Nigeria/Biafra, (The White House Washington, August 21, 1969), Declassified, E.O.12958, 21 April 2005.
[13] Kidwai and Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh “Faith-Based Humanitarianism,” Southern Responses to Displacement, 2017 available at https://southernresponses.org/faith-based-humanitarianism, (accessed 20 August 2022);
[14] Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, “Introduction: Faith-Based Humanitarianism in Contexts of Forced Displacement” Journal of Refugee Studies, Volume 24, Issue 3, (September 2011), 429–439.
[15] Alexus Makozi, “Contemporary Trends in the Growth of the Catholic Church in Nigeria,” in The History of the Catholic Church in Nigeria, by Alexus Makozi and Afolabi Ojo (ed.), (Lagos, Macmillan, 1982), 93.
[16] Paul Thompson, The Voice of the Past: Oral History (London: Oxford University Press, 1978), 2
[17] Stephen Humphries, The Handbook of Oral History: Recording Life Stories (London: Inter-Action, 1984), 108.
[18] Vincent Nwosuh, “The Civil War Years: A Time of Great Trial,” in A Hundred Years of the Catholic Church in Eastern Nigeria, 1885 – 1985, ed. Celestine Obi et al (Onitsha: Africana FEP, 1985), 358.
[19] Francis Arinze, interview by author, Onitsha, 12 September 2018.
[20] Rex Niven, The War of Nigerian Unity (Ibadan: Evans Brothers, 1970),100.
[21] Chinua Achebe, There Was a Country: A Personal History (New York: Penguin, 2012),83.
[22] Alexander Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War (Enugu: Fourth Dimension, 1980), 84.
[23] Philip Efiong Jr, “Biafran Refugees: A Tale of Endurance and Brutality”, https://www.kckcc.edu/files/docs/ejournal/volume-five/number-two-oct-2011 5 (accessed 28 January 2020).
[24] Frederick Forsyth, Emeka (Ibadan: Spectrum, 1982), 78.
[25] Christopher Umoh (Catholic Priest), interview by author, Ikot Ekpene, 2012.
[26] Edidiong Ekefre, A Testament of Light: The Life and Times of Dominic Cardinal Ekandem, (Lagos, Mayfive Media, 2013), 174.
[27] Ikot Ekpene Diocesan Archives (IEDA/unclassified), Dominic Ekandem, “The Voice of Africa,” unpublished address, Ibadan (1974), 9.
[28] Asuquo Akpan (Catholic priest), interview by author, Ikot Ekpene, January 2012.
[29] Ededet Bassey (ex-Nigerian Soldier), interview by author, Uyo, January 2019.
[30] Anthony Byrne, Breaching the Blockade: Airlift to Biafra (Dublin: The Columba Press, 1997), 44.
[31] Gerhard Seibert, “São Tomé and the Biafran War (1967-1970),” International Journal of African Historical Studies 51, no. 2 (2018): 278.
[32] John de St. Jorre, The Nigerian Civil War (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1972), 249.
[33] Dan Jacobs, The Brutality of Nations (New York: Alfred A. Knoff, 1987), 50.
[34] NAE/MN/X8, “Archbishop Arinze Urges Catholics to be Hopeful,” The Mirror, vol.2, no.511, Friday, April 19th, 1968.
[35] Okon Okon, Biafra War Revisited: Civil War May Not Be a Bad Thing (Abuja: National Defence College, 2017), 314.
[36] Canning, Peter; Billy FitzGerald, Demond Forristal, Peter Lemass, Dermod McCarthy, and Brian O’Reilly (Production Team). “Night Flight to Uli:” A Documentary, A HARHARS Presentation found in the archives of the Congregation of the Missionary Sister of the Holy Rosary, Killeshandra, Co. Cavan, Ireland, 1968.
[37] Kevin O’Sullivan, ‘Humanitarian Encounters: Biafra, NGOs and Imaginings of the Third World in Britain and Ireland, 1967–70’, Journal of Genocide Research, Vol. 16, No. 2–3 (2014), 306.
[38] Marc-Antoine Perouse de Montclos, “Humanitarian Aid and the Biafran War: Lessons not Learned,” Africa Development XXXIV, no. 1 (2009): 69-82.
[39] David Bargueno, “Humanitarianism in the Age of Empire Deutsch-Sudwestafrika & L’Etat Independent du Congo,” Journal of Namibian Studies 9, (2011): 17-60.
[40] Joseph Thompson, American Policy and African Famine: The Nigeria-Biafra War, 1966 –70 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), 43.
[41] Agnes Ekandem, interview by author, Abuja, 21 December 2018.
[42] NAE/FRP/P.1, Text of Statement by the Honourable Joseph Palmer II, Assistant Secretary of State, African Affairs, Washington DC Presented to the African Sub-Committee of the State, Foreign Relations Committee, Washington DC before the Chairman, Senator Eugene McCarthy (Democrat, Minnesota), 11 September 1968.
[43] Marie-Luce Desgrandchamps, “‘Organising the Unpredictable’: The Nigeria-Biafra War and its Impact on the ICRC,” International Review of the Red Cross, Volume 94, Number 888 (Winter 2012) 1409-1531.
[44] Joseph Una Ama, interview by author, Ikot Ekpene, 10 January 2012.
[45] Sylvanus Etok (Monsignor), interview by author, Ikot Ekpene, 2012.
[46] Silas Umoh (Catholic Priest), interview by author, Ikot Ekpene, 2012.
[47] Cosmas Udoma (Monsignor), interview by author, Ikot Ekpene, 2015.
[48] Moses Esoh (Ex-Biafran captive), interview by author, Uyo, 2018.
[49] CADIST/14/1/65, “South-Eastern State of Nigeria: State Rehabilitation Commission, March 1969,” Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Federal Ministry of Information: Fact Sheets on South Eastern State of Nigeria: Ministry of Health, 1969.
[50] Edidiong Ekefre, A Testament of Peace: The Biography of His Grace, Archbishop Joseph Ukpo, (Uyo: Commonwealth, 2015), 101.
[51] Anthony Uduk, interview by author, Anua, February 2019.
[52] Rose Ekefre, interview by author, Mkpat Enin, October 2020.
[53] Rory O’Brien, The Nigeria-Biafra Civil War: My Personal Reminiscences of the Conflict in Afikpo 1967-1970 (Tullamore: Print Plus, 2018), 30.
[54] Michael Okoro, interview by author, Abakaliki, 10 October 2018.
[55] Joseph Ukpo, interview by author, Calabar, 3 January 2019.
[56] Edem Akpan Essien (Deacon in Qua Iboe Church and an ex-Nigerian soldier), interview by author, Uyo, April 2016.
[57] NAE/NM/X/20, “The Menace of Foreign Priests,” Daily Times Newspaper, 10 March 1970 “Nigerian Civil War: History, Causes and Effects”, earlyface.com, (accessed, 6 January 2016).
[58] NAE/FRP/O.1, Conor Cruise O’Brien, “Biafra Revisited,” May 1969.
[59] Mary-Noelle Ezeh, “Starvation and Relief Operations in the Nigeria/Biafra War: The Role of Religious Organizations and the Local Population,” in The Nigeria/Biafra War: Genocide and Politics of Memory, by Chima Korieh (ed.), (New York, Cambria Press, 2019), pp.91-110.
[60] NAE/MN/X10, “Sick Bays and the Treatment of Kwashiorkor” by Okechukwu Ikejiani, Survival: Biafra Rehabilitation Commission Newsletter, vol. 1, no. 2, March/April 1969, 4.
[61] Peter Iyire (Monsignor and ex-military chaplain), interview by author, Ikot Ekpene, 25 April 2019.
[62] Asuquo Akpan, (Catholic priest), interview by author, Ikot Ekpene, 13 November 2018.
[63] Enda Staunton, “The Case of Biafra: Ireland and the Nigerian Civil War,” Irish Historical Studies 31, no. 124 (November 1999), 520.
[64] Miriam Bradley, “Airlifts, Aid and Armed Conflict in Biafra,” International Studies Review, Volume 22, Issue 3 (September 2020), 725–726.
[65] Benedict Gbulie, interview by author, Enugu, 22 September 2018.
[66] Lasse Heerten, The Biafran War and Postcolonial Humanitarianism (New York: Cambridge, 2017), 67.
[67] Suzanne Cronje, The World and Nigeria: The Diplomatic History of the Biafran War 1967 - 1970, (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1972), 134.
[68] Edidiong Ekefre, “Hosting Biafran-Child Refugees: The Inter-African Refugee and International Humanitarian Network System during the Nigerian Civil War, 1967 and Beyond,” Journal of Migration History, 9 (2023), 279.
[69] Claude Cookman, “Gilles Caron’s Coverage of the Crisis in Biafra,” Visual Communication Quarterly, No. 15, Volume 4 (2008), 226-242.
[70] NAE/MN/X10, “Pope Offers Rome for Flights to Rebels”, Daily Times, The Independent Newspaper, Thursday, 3 July 1969, 1.
[71] NAE/MN/X10, “Rebel’s Aircraft is Shot Down near Eket,” Daily Times, The Independent Newspaper, Saturday, 7 June 1969, 1.
[72] “Red Cross calls up Lindt for Talks,” Daily Times: The Independent Newspaper, Monday, 16 June 1969, 1.
[73] NAE/MN/X10, Daily Times: The Independent Newspaper, Thursday, 3 July 1969, 1.
[74] US/DSA/1269, “Status Report on Nigeria/Biafra,” Memorandum for Henry Kissinger by Roger Morris, 12 September 1969.
[75] Geneva International Committee of the Red Cross Founded in 1863, International Review of the Red Cross: Inter Arma Caritas, Ninth Years – No.94, January 1969, 18.
[76] Obinna Nweke, “Hunger as a Weapon of War: Biafra, Social Media and the Politics of Famine Remembrance”, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 45, No. 2 (2024) 314–331.
[77] US/DSA/12069 “Presidential Initiative in Nigeria/Biafra Relief Impasse,” Memorandum from Henry Kissinger to the President Richard Nixon, September 20, 1969 (Foreign Relations, 1969-1976, Volume E-5, Documents on Africa, 1969-1972 https//2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/Nixon/e5/54970.htm).
[78] US/DSA/12669, “Memorandum of Conversation” Secretary’s Delegation to the Twenty-Fourth Session of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, 26 September 1969.
[79] US/DSA/12469, “Congressional Criticism of Nigerian Policy”, Memorandum from Henry Kissinger to the President Richard Nixon5f, Thursday, 24 April 1969.
[80] CADIST/14/1/65, “Rebels Call for Help,” Government of South-Eastern State of Nigeria, Department of Information: Selected News Talks Prepared Under the Auspice of the Department of Information and Relayed over Radio Nigeria, Calabar.
[81] Fola Oyewole, Reluctant Rebel (London: Rex Collings, 1975),148.
[82] Chimamanda Adichie, Half of a Yellow Sun (Lagos: Kachifo, 2006), 290.
[83] New York Times, “Only One Airport is Open in Biafra: Uli Field Reported Shut as Federal Troops Move Up,” 15 September 1968.
[84] John Obodaogwu, interview by author, Enugu, 15 November 2018.
[85] Nze Francis Echutem, interview by author, Abagana, 14 September 2018.
[86] Peter Edeh, interview by author, Enugu, 18 November 2018.
[87] Michael Bennett, Empire of Humanity: A History of Humanitarianism (New York: Cornell University Press, 2011), 18.
[88] Anthony Kirk-Greene, Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria: A Documentary Sourcebook, 1966 – 1970 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 121.