Hand Hygiene Habits of Ghanaian Youths in Accra, Ghana
Authors: Timothy B. Oppong, Haiyan Yang, Cecilia Amponsem-Boateng, Guangcai Duan
Abstract:
The human palm has been identified as one of the richest habitats for human microbial accommodation making hand hygiene essential to primary prevention of infection. Since the hand is in constant contact with fomites which have been proven to be mostly contaminated, building hand hygiene habits is essential for the prevention of infection. This research was conducted to assess the hand hygiene habits of Ghanaian youths in Accra. This study used a survey as a quantitative method of research. The findings of the study revealed that out of the 254 participants who fully answered the questionnaire, 22% had the habit of washing their hands after outings while only 51.6% had the habit of washing their hands after using the bathroom. However, about 60% of the participants said they sometimes ate with their hands while 28.9% had the habit of eating with the hand very often, a situation that put them at risk of infection from their hands since some participants had poor handwashing habits; prompting the need for continuous education on hand hygiene.
Keywords: Hand hygiene, hand hygiene habits, hand washing, hand sanitizer use.
Procedia APA BibTeX Chicago EndNote Harvard JSON MLA RIS XML ISO 690 PDF Downloads 229References:
[1] Vandegrift, R.; Bateman, A.C.; Siemens, K.N.; Nguyen, M.; Wilson, H.E.; Green, J.L.; Van Den Wymelenberg, K.G.; Hickey, R.J. Cleanliness in context: Reconciling hygiene with a modern microbial perspective. Microbiome 2017, 5, 76. (CrossRef)
[2] Sang, W.K.; Oundo, V.; Schnabel, D. Prevalence and antibiotic resistance of bacterial pathogens isolated from childhood diarrhoea in four provinces of Kenya. J. Infect. Dev. Ctries. 2012, 6, 572–578. (CrossRef) (PubMed)
[3] Maji, J.W.; Danladi, M.D.; Sandra, A.I. Comparative Studies on the Bacteria associated with Hands of School
[4] Pupils’ in Government and Private Primary Schools in Dutsin-MA, Kastina State. Arch. Clin. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 87. (CrossRef)
[5] Edmonds-Wilson, S.L.; Nurinova, N.I.; Zapka, C.A.; Fierer, N.; Wilson, M. Review of human hand microbiome research. J. Dermatol. Sci. 2015, 80, 3–12. (CrossRef) (PubMed)
[6] Partnership, G.H. Step Three: Habit Formation | The Global Handwashing Partnership. Available online: https://globalhandwashing.org/step-three-habit-formation/ (accessed on 10 December 2018).
[7] Gardner, B.; Lally, P.; Wardle, J. Making health habitual: The psychology of ‘habit-formation’ and general practice. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 2012, 62, 664. (CrossRef) (PubMed)
[8] CDC. Handwashing and Hand Sanitizer Use at Home, at Play, and Out and About. Available online: www.cdc.gov/handwashing (accessed on 10 December 2018).
[9] Tagoe, D.N.A.; Baidoo, S.E.; Dadzie, I.; Tengey, D.; Agede, C. Potential sources of transmission of hospital acquired infections in the volta regional hospital in Ghana. Ghana Med. J. 2011, 45, 22–26. (CrossRef)
[10] Tagoe, D.N.; Adam, L. Antibiotic Resistant Bacterial Contamination of the Ghanaian Currency Note: A Potential Health Problem. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. Res. 2011, 1, 37–44.
[11] Enemuor, S.C.; Victor, P.I.; Oguntibeju, O.O. Microbial contamination of currency counting machines and counting room environment in selected commercial banks. Sci. Res. Essays 2012, 7, 1508–1511. (CrossRef)
[12] Enemuor, S.C.; Apeh, T.A.; Oguntibeju, O.O. Microorganisms associated with computer keyboards and mice in a university environment. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 2012, 6, 4424–4426. (CrossRef)
[13] Alemu, A. Microbial Contamination of Currency Notes and Coins in Circulation: A Potential Public Health Hazard. Biomed. Biotechnol. 2014, 2, 46–53.
[14] Borchgrevink, C.P.; Cha, J.; Kim, S. Hand washing practices in a college town environment. J. Environ. Health 2013, 75, 18–25. (PubMed)
[15] Rabbi, S.E.; Dey, N.C. Exploring the gap between hand washing knowledge and practices in Bangladesh: A cross-sectional comparative study. BMC Public Health 2013, 13, 89. (CrossRef) (PubMed)
[16] Bashtawy, M.A.L. Assessment of hand-washing habits among school students aged 6–18 years in Jordan. Br. J. Sch. Nurs. 2017, 12, 30–36. (CrossRef)
[17] Mireku-Gyimah, N.; Apanga, P.A.; Awoonor-Williams, J.K. Cyclical cholera outbreaks in Ghana: Filth, not myth. Infect. Dis. Poverty 2018, 7, 51. (CrossRef) (PubMed)
[18] UNICEF Ghana. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene—WASH in Communities. Available online: https: //www.unicef.org/ghana/wes.html (accessed on 28 May 2019).
[19] USAID Ghana. Water | Ghana | U.S. Agency for International Development. Available online: https: //www.usaid.gov/ghana/water (accessed on 28 May 2019).
[20] Feglo, P.; Sakyi, K. Bacterial contamination of street vending food in Kumasi, Ghana. J. Med. Biomed. Sci. 2012, 1, 1–8.
[21] Mensah, P.; Yeboah-Manu, D.; Owusu-Darko, K.; Ablordey, A. Street foods in Accra, Ghana: How safe are they? Bull. World Health Organ. 2002, 80, 546–554.
[22] Wang, Y.; Moe, C.L.; Null, C.; Raj, S.J.; Baker, K.K.; Robb, K.A.; Yakubu, H.; Ampofo, J.A.; Wellington, N.;
[23] Freeman, M.C.; et al. Multipathway Quantitative Assessment of Exposure to Fecal Contamination for Young
[24] Children in Low-Income Urban Environments in Accra, Ghana: The SaniPath Analytical Approach. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2017, 97, 1009–1019. (CrossRef)
[25] Krumkamp, R.; Sarpong, N.; Schwarz, N.G.; Adelkofer, J.; Loag, W.; Eibach, D.; Hagen, R.M.; Adu-Sarkodie, Y.; Tannich, E.; May, J. Gastrointestinal infections and diarrheal disease in Ghanaian infants and children: An outpatient case-control study. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2015, 9, e0003568.
[26] Ohene-Adjei, K.; Kenu, E.; Bandoh, D.A.; Addo, P.N.; Noora, C.L.; Nortey, P.; Afari, E.A. Epidemiological link of a major cholera outbreak in Greater Accra region of Ghana, 2014. BMC Public Health 2017, 17, 801. (CrossRef)
[27] Amponsem-Boateng, C.; Zhang, W.; Oppong Bonney, T.; Opolot, G.; Zhao, Q. Hypertension: The future of Ghana (protocols). JMIR Res. Protoc. 2019. (CrossRef)
[28] Graphic Online. Over 10 million Ghanaians Use the Internet—Report-Graphic Online. 2018. Available online: https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/over-10-million-ghanaians-using-the-internetreport.html (accessed on 8 November 2018).
[29] Country Overview: Ghana Driving Mobile-Enabled Digital Transformation. 2017. Available online:
[30] www.gsmaintelligence.com (accessed on 19 May 2019).
[31] Oklahoma State Department of Health. Skin Diseases-Oklahoma State Department of Health. 2018. Available online: https://www.ok.gov/health/Disease,_Prevention,_Preparedness/Acute_Disease_Service/Disease_Information/Skin_Diseases/index.html (accessed on 19 June 2018).
[32] Mathur, P. Hand hygiene: Back to the basics of infection control. Indian J. Med. Res. 2011, 134, 611–620. (CrossRef)
[33] Kampf, G.; Kramer, A. Epidemiologic Background of Hand Hygiene and Evaluation of the Most Important Agents for Scrubs and Rubs. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2004, 17, 863–893. (CrossRef) (PubMed)
[34] Mennisota Department of Health. Hand Sanitizers: Not a Replacement for Handwashing in Food Service Settings. Available online: http://www.health.state.mn.us/handhygiene/food/handsanifs.html (accessed on 10 December 2018).
[35] Todd, E.C.D.; Michaels, B.S.; Holah, J.; Smith, D.; Greig, J.D.; Bartleson, C.A. Outbreaks where food workers have been implicated in the spread of foodborne disease. Part 10. Alcohol-based antiseptics for hand disinfection and a comparison of their effectiveness with soaps. J. Food Prot. 2010, 73, 2128–2140.
[36] Stilo, A.; Troiano, G.; Melcarne, L.; Gioffrè, M.E.; Nante, N.; Messina, G.; Laganà, P. Hand washing in operating room: A procedural comparison. Epidemiol. Biostat. Public Health 2016, 73, 2128–2140.
[37] Anderson, J.L.; Warren, C.A.; Perez, E.; Louis, R.I.; Phillips, S.; Wheeler, J.; Cole, M.; Misra, R. Gender and ethnic differences in hand hygiene practices among college students. Am. J. Infect. Control 2008, 36, 361–368. (CrossRef) (PubMed)
[38] White, C.; Kolble, R.; Carlson, R.; Lipson, N. The Impact of a Health Campaign on Hand Hygiene and Upper
[39] Respiratory Illness Among College Students Living in Residence Halls. J. Am. Coll. Health 2005, 53, 175–181. (CrossRef) (PubMed)
[40] Musu, M.; Lai, A.; Mereu, N.M.; Galletta, M.; Campagna, M.; Tidore, M.; Piazza, M.F.; Spada, L.; Massidda, M.V.; Colombo, S.; et al. Assessing hand hygiene compliance among healthcare workers in six Intensive Care Units. J. Prev. Med. Hyg. 2017, 58, E231–E237.