Effect of Treadmill Exercise on Fluid Intelligence in Early Adults: Electroencephalogram Study

Authors: Ladda Leungratanamart, Seree Chadcham

Abstract:

Fluid intelligence declines along with age, but it can be developed. For this reason, increasing fluid intelligence in young adults can be possible. This study examined the effects of a two-month treadmill exercise program on fluid intelligence. The researcher designed a treadmill exercise program to promote cardiorespiratory fitness. Thirty-eight healthy voluntary students from the Boromarajonani College of Nursing, Chon Buri were assigned randomly to an exercise group (n=18) and a control group (n=20). The experiment consisted of three sessions: The baseline session consisted of measuring the VO₂max, electroencephalogram and behavioral response during performed the Raven Progressive Matrices (RPM) test, a measure of fluid intelligence. For the exercise session, an experimental group exercises using treadmill training at 60 % to 80 % maximum heart rate for 30 mins, three times per week, whereas the control group did not exercise. For the following two sessions, each participant was measured the same as baseline testing. The data were analyzed using the t-test to examine whether there is significant difference between the means of the two groups. The results showed that the mean VO₂ max in the experimental group were significantly more than the control group (p<.05), suggesting a two-month treadmill exercise program can improve fluid intelligence. When comparing the behavioral data, it was found that experimental group performed RPM test more accurately and faster than the control group. Neuroelectric data indicated a significant increase in percentages of alpha band ERD (%ERD) at P3 and Pz compared to the pre-exercise condition and the control group. These data suggest that a two-month treadmill exercise program can contribute to the development of cardiorespiratory fitness which influences an increase fluid intelligence. Exercise involved in cortical activation in difference brain areas.

Keywords: Treadmill exercise, fluid intelligence, raven progressive matrices test, %ERD of upper Alpha band.

Digital Object Identifier (DOI): doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1124692

References:

[1] R. Cattle, “Intelligence: Its Structure, Growth and Action,”Amsterdam, North – Holland, 1987.
[2] L. Stankov, “The theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence. New finding and recent development,” Learning and individual differences, pp.1-3, 2000.
[3] E. Ferrer, D O’Hare Elizabeth, and A.B. Silvia, “Fluid reasoning and the developing brain,” Frontiers in neuroscience, June. 2009.
[4] J-J. McArdle, E. Ferrer – Caga, F. Hamagami, and RW. Woodcocik “Comparative longitudinal structural analysis of growth and decline of multiple intellectual abilities over the lifespan,”Dev. Psych., vol. 38, pp. 113– 142, 2002.
[5] R.E. Nisbett, “Intelligence and how to get it: Varieties of Intelligence,” W.W. Norton & Company.Inc: New York, pp. 40-64, 2009.
[6] J. L. Scisco, P. L. Andrew and K. Jie, “Cardiovascular fitness and executive control during task - switching: An ERP study,” International Journal of psychophysiology, vol. 69, pp. 52 – 60, 2008.
[7] B.A. Sibley, and L.B. Sian, “Exercise and working memory: An individual differences investigation,” Journal of Sport of exercise psychology, vol.29, pp. 783 – 791, 2007.
[8] M. Singh, M. H. Archana, B. Eric, and M. Michanel, “Effect of physical activity on cognitive functioning in middle age: evidence from the Whitehall ll prospective cohort study,” American Journal of public health, vol. 95, pp. 2252 – 2258, 2005.
[9] S. J. Colcombe, A. F. Kramer, K. Erickson, E. McAuley, and N. J. Cohen, “Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 101, pp. 3316-3321, 2004.
[10] R. E. Jung, and R.J. Haier, “The parieto-frontal integration theory (P-FIT) of intelligence: Converging neuroimaging evidence,” Behavior and Brain Science, 2007.
[11] A.C. Neubauer, and A. Fink, “Fluid intelligence and neural efficiency: Effect of task complexity and sex,” Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 35, pp. 811-827, 2003.
[12] J. Raven, J.C. Raven, and H. H. Court, “Raven manual: Section 3. Standard Progressive Matrices,” Oxford: Oxford Psychologists Press Ltd, 2000.
[13] A. Neubauer, R. H. Grabner, A. Fink, and C. Neuper, “Intelligence and neural efficiency: Further evidence of the influence of task content and sex on the brain- IQ relationship,” Cognitive Brain Research, vol. 23, pp. 217-228, 2005.
[14] S.J. Colcombe, K.I. Erickson, P.E. Scalf, J.S. Kim, R. Prakash.R, and E. McAuley, “Aerobic exercise training increase brain volume in aging human,” Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences, vol. 61 (11), pp. 1161-1170, 2006.
[15] T. MeMorris, and Graydon, “The effect of increment exercise on cognitive performance,” International Journal of sport Psychology, vol. 31, pp. 66-81, 2005.
[16] T. Higasghiura, Y. Nishihara, T. Higashiura, and S.R. Kim, “The interactive effects of exercise intensity and duration or cognitive processing in the central nervous system,” Adv Exerc Sports Physiol, vol. 2(1), pp. 15- 21, 2006.
[17] K. Kamijo, N. Yoshiaki, H. Takuro, and K. Kazuo, “The interactive effect of exercise intensity and task difficulty on human cognitive processing,” International Psychophysiology, vol. 65, pp. 114-121, 2007.
[18] W. Klimesch, “EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory performance: a review and analysis,” Brain Reseach Reviews, vol. 29, pp. 169-195, 1999.
[19] A. Neubauer, R. Grabner, R. H., Fink, and C. Neuper, “Intelligence and neural efficiency: Further evidence of the influence of task content and sex on the brain- IQ relationship,” Cognitive Brain Research, vol.23, pp. 217-228, 2005.
[20] A. I. Maria, N. L. Åberg, T. Kjell , S. Magnus, B. Björn, J. Tommy, M. Christiana, N. D Åberg, N. Michael, and H. K. Georg, “Cardiovascular fitness is associated with cognition in young adulthood,” Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol. 8, pp. 106-149, Dec. 2009.
[21] G. Pfurtscheller, and F. H. Lopes da Silva, “Event-related EEG/MEG synchronization and desynchronization: basic principles,” Clinical Neurophysiology, vol. 110, pp. 1842-1857, May. 1999.
[22] J.L. Etnier, and M. Berry, “Fluid intelligence in an older COPD sample after short- or long- term exercise,” Medicine & Science in Sport & Exercise, pp.1620-1628, 2001.
[23] M. Doppelmayr, W. Klimesch, W. Stadler, D. Pollhuber, and C. Heine, “EEG alpha power and intelligence,” Intelligence, vol. 30, pp. 289-302, 2002.
[24] R. H. Grabner, A. Fink, A. Stipacek, C. Neuper and A.C. Neubauer, “Intelligence and working memory system: evidence of neural efficiency in alpha band ERD,” Cognitive Brain Research, vol. 20, pp. 212-225, 2004.
[25] R.J. Haier, B.V. Siegel, K.H. Nuechterlein, E. Hazlett, J.C. Wu, J. Paek, H. L.Browning, and M.S. Buchsbaum, “Cortical glucose metabolic rate correlate of abstract reasoning and attention studied with positron emission tomography,” Intelligence, vol. 12, pp.199-217, 2009.
[26] E. F. Preusse, G. van der Meer, F. Deshpande, F. W. Krueger, “Fluid intelligence allows flexible recruitment of the parieto-frontal network in analogical reasoning,” Front Hum Neurosci, Mar. 2011.
[27] A. Langer, A. Pedroni, L.R. Gianotti, J. Hänggi, D. Knoch, and L. Jäncke, “Functional brain network efficiency predicts intelligence,” Human Brain Mapp, vol. 33, pp. 1393-1406, 2012.
[28] H. Yanagisawa, I. Dan, D. Tsuzuki, M. Kato, M. Okamoto, Y. Kyutoku, and H. Soya, “Acute moderate exercise elicits increased dorsolateral prefrontal activation and improve cognitive performance with Stroop test,” NeuroImage, vol. 50, pp.1702-1710, 20o7
[29] A.C. Neubauer and A. Fink, “Intelligence and neural efficiency,” Neuroscience and biobehavioral Review, pp. 1-20, 2009.
[30] C. W. Cotman, and N.C. Berchtold, “Exercise: a behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity,” Trends in Neuroscience, vol. 25, pp.295-301.
[31] Q. Ding, S. Vaynman, M. Akhavan, Z. Ying, F. Gomez-Pinilla, “Insulin-like growth factor 1 interfaces with brain-derived neurotropic factor- mediated synaptic plasticity to modulate aspect of exercise- induced cognitive function,” Neuroscience, vol. 140, pp.823-833, 2006.
[32] V. Castellano, L. J. White, “Serum brain-derive neurotrophic factor response to aerobic exercise in multiple sclerosis,’ Journal of Neurological Sciences, vol. 269, pp. 85-91, 2008.