Search results for: brain drain

Authors: Jaspal Rana, Varinder Singh

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Oxidative stress has been identified as an underlying cause of ischemia-reperfusion (IR) related cognitive dysfunction and brain damage. Therefore, antioxidant based therapies to treat IR injury are being investigated. Allium cepa L. (onion) is used as culinary medicine and is documented to have marked antioxidant effects. Hence, the present study was designed to evaluate the effect of A. cepa outer scale extract (ACE) against IR induced cognition and biochemical deficit in mice. ACE was prepared by maceration with 70% methanol and fractionated into ethylacetate and aqueous fractions. Bilateral common carotid artery occlusion for 10 min, followed by 24 h reperfusion, was used to induce cerebral IR injury. Following IR injury, ACE (100 and 200 mg/kg) was administered orally to animals for 7 days once daily. Behavioral outcomes (memory and sensorimotor functions) were evaluated using Morris water maze and neurological severity score. Cerebral infarct size, brain thiobarbituric acid reactive species, reduced glutathione, and superoxide dismutase activity were also determined. Treatment with ACE significantly ameliorated IR mediated deterioration of memory and sensorimotor functions and rose in brain oxidative stress in animals. The results of the present investigation revealed that ACE improved functional outcomes after cerebral IR injury which may be attributed to its antioxidant properties.

Keywords: allium cepa, cerebral ischemia, memory, sensorimotor

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Authors: Debajyoti Mukherjee, Arathy B. S., Arpita Sahu, Saranga P. Pogula

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A functional model to mimic the functional correctness of a neural network compute accelerator IP is very crucial for design validation. Neural network workloads are based on a Brain Floating Point (BF-16) data type. The major challenge we were facing was the incompatibility of GCC compilers to the BF-16 datatype, which we addressed with a native BF-16 generator integrated into our functional model. Moreover, working with big GEMM (General Matrix Multiplication) or SpMM (Sparse Matrix Multiplication) Work Loads (Dense or Sparse) and debugging the failures related to data integrity is highly painstaking. In this paper, we are addressing the quality challenge of such a complex neural network accelerator design by proposing a functional model-based scoreboard or software model using SystemC. The proposed functional model executes the assembly code based on the ISA of the processor IP, decodes all instructions, and executes as expected to be done by the DUT. The said model would give a lot of visibility and debug capability in the DUT, bringing up micro-steps of execution.

Keywords: ISA, neural network, Brain Float-16, DUT

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Authors: Berkan Ural, Arif Eser, Sinan Apaydin

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Medical image processing is generally become a challenging task nowadays. Indeed, processing of brain MRI images is one of the difficult parts of this area. This study proposes a hybrid well-defined approach which is consisted from tumor detection, extraction and analyzing steps. This approach is mainly consisted from a computer aided diagnostics system for identifying and detecting the tumor formation in any region of the brain and this system is commonly used for early prediction of brain tumor using advanced image processing and probabilistic neural network methods, respectively. For this approach, generally, some advanced noise removal functions, image processing methods such as automatic segmentation and morphological operations are used to detect the brain tumor boundaries and to obtain the important feature parameters of the tumor region. All stages of the approach are done specifically with using MATLAB software. Generally, for this approach, firstly tumor is successfully detected and the tumor area is contoured with a specific colored circle by the computer aided diagnostics program. Then, the tumor is segmented and some morphological processes are achieved to increase the visibility of the tumor area. Moreover, while this process continues, the tumor area and important shape based features are also calculated. Finally, with using the probabilistic neural network method and with using some advanced classification steps, tumor area and the type of the tumor are clearly obtained. Also, the future aim of this study is to detect the severity of lesions through classes of brain tumor which is achieved through advanced multi classification and neural network stages and creating a user friendly environment using GUI in MATLAB. In the experimental part of the study, generally, 100 images are used to train the diagnostics system and 100 out of sample images are also used to test and to check the whole results. The preliminary results demonstrate the high classification accuracy for the neural network structure. Finally, according to the results, this situation also motivates us to extend this framework to detect and localize the tumors in the other organs.

Keywords: image processing algorithms, magnetic resonance imaging, neural network, pattern recognition

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Authors: Ebele V. Okoli, Emmanuel Nwobi, Dozie Ezechukwu, Ijeoma Itanyi

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One in seven people worldwide suffer from a disability. 80% of people with disabilities live in developing countries. Negative attitudes and misconceptions among health-care providers constitute barri¬ers to optimal health care for people with disabilities. This underscores the relevance of a study of the attitude of Nigerian medical students towards disability and their willingness to work in the disability sector. This was a descriptive cross-sectional study conducted among 254 penultimate and final year medical students of a university in southeastern Nigeria. The mean age of the students was 24.8 ± 3.12 years. Majority of the students were male (75.2%), single (96.9%), of the Igbo tribe (86.6%), Christian (97.6%) and grew up in urban areas (68.1%). Results indicated that the medical students had a predominantly positive attitude towards people with disability as 73.8% had a positive attitude and mean attitude score was 67.03 ± 0.14 (positive attitude = 61 – 120, negative attitude = 0 - 60). Chi-square analysis did not show any significant effect of demographic and social factors on the students’ attitude towards People with Disabilities. The students were mostly willing to work in areas that address the challenges of people with disability (70.4%) but a greater proportion had never heard about Disability Studies (67.5%). About a third of the students (33.2%) would like to travel abroad to practice in the disability sector. Conclusions: The students generally had a positive attitude towards people with disability and a greater percentage were willing to work in the disability sector in their future career. About two-thirds had however, never heard about disability studies. There was some potential for brain drain among the students as a third of the population intended to practice abroad on graduation.

Keywords: attitudes, career interest, disability, medical students

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Authors: Anjani Kumar Tiwari, Neelam Kumari, Anil Mishra

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The family of phosphodiesterases (PDEs) plays a critical role in control of the level, localization, and duration of intracellular 3’-5’-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and 3’-5’-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signals by specifically hydrolyzing these cyclic nucleotides. As the involvement of cyclic nucleotide second messengers in cell signaling and homeostasis is established, the regulation of these pathways in the brain by various PDE isoforms is an area of considerable interest, as they are involved in nearly all brain functions and in the etiology of neuropsychiatric diseases. The PDE10A isoform, isolated from different species and characterized regarding structure and function, has received much attention in recent years, particularly in the context of schizophrenia and Huntington’s disease, which are both related to a role of PDE10A in the regulation of striatal dopaminergic neurotransmission. Quinazoline analogue 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-6,7-dimethoxyquinazoline, was evaluated as specific PET marker for phosphodiesterase (PDE) 10A. Here, we report the radiosynthesis of [11C]2 and the in vitro and in vivo evaluation of [11C]2 as a potential positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracer for imaging PDE10A in the central nervous system (CNS). The radiosynthesis of [11C]2 was achieved by O-methylation of the corresponding des-methyl precursor with [11C]methyl iodide. [11C]2 was obtained with ∼50% radiochemical yield. PET imaging studies in rat brain displayed initial specific uptake with very rapid clearance of [11C]2 from brain. Though [11C]2 is not an ideal radioligand for clinical imaging of PDE10A in the CNS. Modified analogue of quinazoline having a higher potency for inhibiting PDE10A and improved pharmacokinetic properties will be necessary for imaging this enzyme with PET.

Keywords: PDE10A, PET, radiotracer, quinazoline

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Authors: Javad Abdi, Azam Famil Khalili

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Modeling emotions have attracted much attention in recent years, both in cognitive psychology and design of artificial systems. However, it is a negative factor in decision-making; emotions have shown to be a strong faculty for making fast satisfying decisions. In this paper, we have adapted a computational model based on the limbic system in the mammalian brain for control engineering applications. Learning in this model based on Temporal Difference (TD) Learning, we applied the proposed controller (termed BELBIC) for a simple model of a submarine. The model was supposed to reach the desired depth underwater. Our results demonstrate excellent control action, disturbance handling, and system parameter robustness for TDBELBIC. The proposal method, regarding the present conditions, the system action in the part and the controlling aims, can control the system in a way that these objectives are attained in the least amount of time and the best way.

Keywords: artificial neural networks, temporal difference, brain emotional learning based intelligent controller, heating- ventilating and air conditioning

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Authors: Ibtihal D. Mustafa, Mawia A. Hassan

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Tumor segmentation from MRI image is important part of medical images experts. This is particularly a challenging task because of the high assorting appearance of tumor tissue among different patients. MRI images are advance of medical imaging because it is give richer information about human soft tissue. There are different segmentation techniques to detect MRI brain tumor. In this paper, different procedure segmentation methods are used to segment brain tumors and compare the result of segmentations by using correlation and structural similarity index (SSIM) to analysis and see the best technique that could be applied to MRI image.

Keywords: MRI, segmentation, correlation, structural similarity

Procedia PDF Downloads 373

Authors: Marawan Abd Elbaset Mohamed, Hanan A. Ogaly, Rehab F. Abdel-Rahman, Ahmed-Farid O.A., Marwa S. Khattab, Reham M. Abd-Elsalam

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Liver fibrosis is a severe worldwide health concern due to various chronic liver disorders. Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is one of its most common complications affecting liver and brain cognitive function. Beta-Carotene (B-Car) is an organic, strongly colored red-orange pigment abundant in fungi, plants, and fruits. The study attempted to know B-Car neuroprotective potential against thioacetamide (TAA)-induced neurotoxicity and cognitive decline in HE in rats. Hepatic encephalopathy was induced by TAA (100 mg/kg, i.p.) three times per week for two weeks. B-Car was given orally (10 or 20 mg/kg) daily for two weeks after TAA injections. Organ body weight ratio, Serum transaminase activities, liver’s antioxidant parameters, ammonia, and liver histopathology were assessed. Also, the brain’s mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), antioxidant parameters, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine monophosphate (AMP), norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) expression and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) expression were measured. The brain’s cognitive functions (Spontaneous locomotor activity, Rotarod performance test, Object recognition test) were assessed. B-Car prevented alteration of the brain’s cognitive function in a dose-dependent manner. The histopathological outcomes supported these biochemical evidences. Based on these results, it could be established that B-Car could be assigned to treat the brain’s neurotoxicity consequences of HE via downregualtion of MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathways.

Keywords: beta-carotene, liver injury, MAPK, NF-κB, rat, thioacetamide

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Authors: Nita Rukminasari

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The aim of this study is to select microalgae strains, which were isolated from agriculture and municipal wastewater drain, Reno, Nevada that has highest growth rate and lipid contents. The experiments in this study were carried out in two consecutive stages. The first stage is aimed at testing the survival capability of all isolated microalgae strains and determining the best candidates to grow in centrate cultivation system. The second stage was targeted at determination the highest growth rate and highest lipid content of the selected top performing algae strain when cultivated on centrate wastewater. 26 microalgae strains, which were isolated from municipal and agriculture waste water, were analyzed using Flow cytometer for FACS of lipid with BODIPY and Nile Red as a lipid dyes and they grew on 96 wells plate for 31 days to determine growth rate as a based line data for growth rate. The result showed that microalgae strains which showed a high mean of fluorescence for BODIPY and Nile Red were F3.BP.1, F3.LV.1, T1.3.1, and T1.3.3. Five microalgae strains which have high growth rate were T1.3.3, T2.4.1. F3.LV.1, T2.12.1 and T3.3.1. In conclusion, microalgae strain which showed the highest starch content was F3.LV.1. T1.3.1 had the highest mean of fluorescence for Nile Red and BODIPY. Microalgae strains were potential for biofuel feedstock such as F3.LV.1 and T1.3.1, those microalgae strains showed a positive correlation between growth rate at stationary phase, biomass and meant of fluorescence for Nile Red and BODIPY.

Keywords: agriculture and municipal wastewater, biofuel, centrate, microalgae

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Authors: Morgane Chatard, Clémentine Puech, Nathalie Perek, Frédéric Roche

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Several neurological disorders are linked to repeated hypoxia. The impact of such repeated hypoxic stress, on endothelial cells function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is little studied in the literature. Indeed, the study of hypoxic stress in cellular pathways is complex using hypoxia exposure because HIF 1α (factor induced by hypoxia) has a short half life. Our study presents an innovative induction method of repeated hypoxic stress, more reproducible, which allows us to study its impacts on an in vitro contact co-culture BBB model. Repeated hypoxic stress was induced by hydralazine (a mimetic agent of hypoxia pathway) during two hours and repeated during 24 hours. Then, BBB integrity was assessed by permeability measurements (transendothelial electrical resistance and membrane permeability), tight junction protein expressions (cell-ELISA and confocal microscopy) and by studying expression and activity of efflux transporters. First, this study showed that repeated hypoxic stress leads to a BBB’s dysfunction illustrated by a significant increase in permeability. This loss of membrane integrity was linked to a significant decrease of tight junctions’ protein expressions, facilitating a possible transfer of potential cytotoxic compounds in the brain. Secondly, we demonstrated that brain microvascular endothelial cells had set-up defence mechanism. These endothelial cells significantly increased the activity of their efflux transporters which was associated with a significant increase in their expression. In conclusion, repeated hypoxic stress lead to a loss of BBB integrity with a decrease of tight junction proteins. In contrast, endothelial cells increased the expression of their efflux transporters to fight against cytotoxic compounds brain crossing. Unfortunately, enhanced efflux activity could also lead to reducing pharmacological drugs delivering to the brain in such hypoxic conditions.

Keywords: BBB model, efflux transporters, repeated hypoxic stress, tigh junction proteins

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Authors: Nandini Nalika, Suhel Parvez

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Nanotechnology has emerged to play a vital role in developing all through the industrial world with an immense production of nanomaterials including nanoparticles (NPs). Many toxicological studies have confirmed that due to unique small size and physico-chemical properties of NPs (1-100nm), they can be potentially hazardous. Metallic NPs of small size have been shown to induce higher levels of cellular oxidative stress and can easily pass through the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) and significantly accumulate in brain. With the wide applications of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TNPs) in day-to-day life in form of cosmetics, paints, sterilisation and so on, there is growing concern regarding the deleterious effects of TNPs on central nervous system and mitochondria appear to be important cellular organelles targeted to the pro-oxidative effects of NPs and an important source that contribute significantly for the production of reactive oxygen species after some toxicity or an injury. The aim of our study was to elucidate the effect of TNPs in anatase form with different concentrations (5-50 µg/ml) following with various oxidative stress markers in isolated brain mitochondria as an in vitro model. Oxidative stress was determined by measuring the different oxidative stress markers like lipid peroxidation as well as the protein carbonyl content which was found to be significantly increased. Reduced glutathione content and major glutathione metabolizing enzymes were also modulated signifying the role of glutathione redox cycle in the pathophysiology of TNPs. The study also includes the mitochondrial enzymes (Complex 1, Complex II, complex IV, Complex V ) and the enzymes showed toxicity in a relatively short time due to the effect of TNPs. The study provide a range of concentration that were toxic to the neuronal cells and data pointing to a general toxicity in brain mitochondria by TNPs, therefore, it is in need to consider the proper utilization of NPs in the environment.

Keywords: mitochondria, nanoparticles, brain, in vitro

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Authors: Zoran Šverko, Saša Vlahinić, Nino Stojković, Ivan Markovinović

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In this article, the classification of target letters is performed using data from the EEG P300 Speller paradigm. Neural networks trained with the results of dynamic connectivity analysis between different brain regions are used for classification. Dynamic connectivity analysis is based on the adaptive window size and the imaginary part of the complex Pearson correlation coefficient. Brain dynamics are analysed using the relative intersection of confidence intervals for the imaginary component of the complex Pearson correlation coefficient method (RICI-imCPCC). The RICI-imCPCC method overcomes the shortcomings of currently used dynamical connectivity analysis methods, such as the low reliability and low temporal precision for short connectivity intervals encountered in constant sliding window analysis with wide window size and the high susceptibility to noise encountered in constant sliding window analysis with narrow window size. This method overcomes these shortcomings by dynamically adjusting the window size using the RICI rule. This method extracts information about brain connections for each time sample. Seventy percent of the extracted brain connectivity information is used for training and thirty percent for validation. Classification of the target word is also done and based on the same analysis method. As far as we know, through this research, we have shown for the first time that dynamic connectivity can be used as a parameter for classifying EEG signals.

Keywords: dynamic connectivity analysis, EEG, neural networks, Pearson correlation coefficients

Procedia PDF Downloads 168

Authors: K. M. Damodara Gowda

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Background: Maternal health and nutrition are considered as the predominant factors influencing brain functional development. If the mother is free of illness and genetic defects, maternal nutrition would be one of the most critical factors affecting the brain development. Calorie restrictions cause significant impairment in spatial learning ability and the levels of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) in rats. But, the mechanism by which the prenatal under-nutrition leads to impairment in brain learning and memory function is still unclear. In the present study, prenatal Astaxanthin supplementation on BDNF level, spatial learning and memory performance in the offspring’s of normal, calorie restricted and Astaxanthin supplemented rats was investigated. Methodology: The rats were administered with 6mg and 12 mg of astaxanthin /kg bw for 21 days following which acquisition and retention of spatial memory was tested in a partially-baited eight arm radial maze. The BDNF level in different regions of the brain (cerebral cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum) was estimated by ELISA method. Results: Calorie restricted animals treated with astaxanthin made significantly more correct choices (P < 0.05), and fewer reference memory errors (P < 0.05) on the tenth day of training compared to offsprings of calorie restricted animals. Calorie restricted animals treated with astaxanthin also made significantly higher correct choices (P < 0.001) than untreated calorie restricted animals in a retention test 10 days after the training period. The mean BDNF level in cerebral cortex, Hippocampus and cerebellum in Calorie restricted animals treated with astaxanthin didnot show significant variation from that of control animals. Conclusion: Findings of the study indicated that memory and learning was impaired in the offspring’s of calorie restricted rats which was effectively modulated by astaxanthin at the dosage of 12 mg/kg body weight. In the same way the BDNF level at cerebral cortex, Hippocampus and Cerebellum was also declined in the offspring’s of calorie restricted animals, which was also found to be effectively normalized by astaxanthin.

Keywords: calorie restiction, learning, Memory, Cerebral cortex, Hippocampus, Cerebellum, BDNF, Astaxanthin

Procedia PDF Downloads 207

Authors: John Gaber, Youssef Ahmed, Hossam A. Gabbar, Jing Ren

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Accidents at Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs) occur due to various factors, notable among them being poor safety management and poor safety culture. During abnormal situations, the likelihood of human error is many-fold higher due to the higher cognitive workload. The most common cause of human error and high cognitive workload is mental fatigue. Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method of gathering the electromagnetic waves emitted by a human brain. We propose a safety system by monitoring brainwaves for signs of mental fatigue using an EEG system. This requires an analysis of the mental model of the NPP operator, changes in brain wave power in response to certain stimuli, and the risk factors on mental fatigue and attention that NPP operators face when performing their tasks. We analyzed these factors and developed an EEG-based monitoring system, which aims to alert NPP operators when levels of mental fatigue and attention hinders their ability to maintain safety.

Keywords: brain imaging, EEG, power plant operator, psychology

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Authors: Sergey Kozlov, Juliya Kozlova

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Introduction: The increased attention of researchers to an explosive trauma around the world is associated with a constant renewal of military weapons and a significant increase in terrorist activities using explosive devices. Explosive wave is a well known damaging factor of explosion. The most sensitive to the action of explosive wave in the human body are the head brain, lungs, intestines, urine bladder. The severity of damage to these organs depends on the distance from the explosion epicenter to the object, the power of the explosion, presence of barriers, parameters of the body position, and the presence of protective clothing. One of the places where a shock wave acts, in human tissues and organs, is the vascular endothelial barrier, which suffers the greatest damage in the head brain and lungs. The objective of the study was to determine the pathomorphological changes of the head brain followed the action of explosive wave. Materials and methods of research: To achieve the purpose of the study, there have been studied 6 male corpses delivered to the morgue of Municipal Institution "Dnipropetrovsk regional forensic bureau" during 2014-2016 years. The cause of death of those killed was a military explosive injury. After a visual external assessment of the head brain, for histological study there was conducted the 1 x 1 x 1 cm/piece sampling from different parts of the head brain, i.e. the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital sites, and also from the cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata, thalamus, walls of the lateral ventricles, the bottom of the 4th ventricle. Pieces of the head brain were immersed in 10% formalin solution for 24 hours. After fixing, the paraffin blocks were made from the material using the standard method. Then, using a microtome, there were made sections of 4-6 micron thickness from paraffin blocks which then were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Microscopic analysis was performed using a light microscope with x4, x10, x40 lenses. Results of the study: According to the results of our study, injuries of the head brain were divided into macroscopic and microscopic. Macroscopic injuries were marked according to the results of visual assessment of haemorrhages under the membranes and into the substance, their nature, and localisation, areas of softening. In the microscopic study, our attention was drawn to both vascular changes and those of neurons and glial cells. Microscopic qualitative analysis of histological sections of different parts of the head brain revealed a number of structural changes both at the cellular and tissue levels. Typical changes in most of the studied areas of the head brain included damages of the vascular system. The most characteristic microscopic sign was the separation of vascular walls from neuroglia with the formation of perivascular space. Along with this sign, wall fragmentation of these vessels, haemolysis of erythrocytes, formation of haemorrhages in the newly formed perivascular spaces were found. In addition to damages of the cerebrovascular system, destruction of the neurons, presence of oedema of the brain tissue were observed in the histological sections of the brain. On some sections, the head brain had a heterogeneous step-like or wave-like nature. Conclusions: The pathomorphological microscopic changes in the brain, identified in the study on the died of explosive traumas, can be used for diagnostic purposes in conjunction with other characteristic signs of explosive trauma in forensic and pathological studies. The complex of microscopic signs in the head brain, i.e. separation of blood vessel walls from neuroglia with the perivascular space formation, fragmentation of walls of these blood vessels, erythrocyte haemolysis, formation of haemorrhages in the newly formed perivascular spaces is the direct indication of explosive wave action.

Keywords: blast wave, neurotrauma, human, brain

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Authors: Jaspal Rana, Alkem Laboratories, Baddi, Himachal Pradesh, India Chitkara University, Punjab, India

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Oxidative stress has been identified as an underlying cause of ischemia-reperfusion (IR) related cognitive dysfunction and brain damage. Therefore, antioxidant based therapies to treat IR injury are being investigated. Allium cepa L. (onion) is used as culinary medicine and is documented to have marked antioxidant effects. Hence, the present study was designed to evaluate the effect of A. cepa outer scale extract (ACE) against IR induced cognition and biochemical deficit in mice. ACE was prepared by maceration with 70% methanol and fractionated into ethylacetate and aqueous fractions. Bilateral common carotid artery occlusion for 10 min followed by 24 h reperfusion was used to induce cerebral IR injury. Following IR injury, ACE (100 and 200 mg/kg) was administered orally to animals for 7 days once daily. Behavioral outcomes (memory and sensorimotor functions) were evaluated using Morris water maze and neurological severity score. Cerebral infarct size, brain thiobarbituric acid reactive species, reduced glutathione, and superoxide dismutase activity was also determined. Treatment with ACE significantly ameliorated IR mediated deterioration of memory and sensorimotor functions and rise in brain oxidative stress in animals. The results of the present investigation revealed that ACE improved functional outcomes after cerebral IR injury, which may be attributed to its antioxidant properties.

Keywords: stroke, neuroprotection, ischemia reperfusion, herbal drugs

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Authors: Noor Ul Huda, Mushtaq Ahmed, Nadia Mushtaq, Naila Sher, Rahmat Ali Khan

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Purpose: The green synthesis of AgNPs has been favored over chemical synthesis due to their distinctive properties such as high dispersion, surface-to-volume ratio, low toxicity, and easy preparation. In the present work, the biosynthesis of AgNPs (KE-AgNPs) was carried out in one step by using the traditionally used plant Kickxia elatine (KE) extract and then investigated its enzyme inhibiting activity against rat’s brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in vitro. Methods: KE-AgNPs were synthesized from 1mM AgNO₃ using KE extract and characterized by UV–spectroscopy, SEM, EDX, XRD, and FTIR analysis. Rat’s brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition activity was evaluated by the standard protocol. Results: UV–spectrum at 416 nm confirmed the formation of KE-AgNPs. X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern presented 2θ values corresponding to the crystalline nature of KE-AgNPs with an average size of 42.47nm. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis confirmed the presence of spherical-shaped and huge density KE-AgNPs with a size of 50nm. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) suggested that the functional groups present in KE extract and on the surface of KE-AgNPs are responsible for the stability of biosynthesized NPs. Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) displayed an intense sharp peak at 3.2 keV, presenting that Ag was the chief element with 61.67%. Both KE extract and KE-AgNPs showed good and potent anti-AChE activity, with higher inhibition potential at a concentration of 175 µg/ml. Statistical analysis showed that both KEE and AgNPs exhibited non-competitive type inhibition against AChE, i.e., Vmax decreased (34.17-68.64% and 22.29- 62.10%) in the concentration-dependent mode for KEE and KE-AgNPs respectively and while Km values remained constant. Conclusions: KEE and KE-AgNPs can be considered an inhibitor of rats’ brain AChE, and the synthesis of KE-AgNPs-based drugs can be used as a cheaper and alternative option against diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease.

Keywords: Kickxia elatine, AgNPs, brain homogenate, acetylcholinesterase, kinetics

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Authors: Diego Carrasco, Catarina Freitas, Hugo Rio Tinto, Ricardo Rio Tinto, Nuno Couto, Joaquim Gago, Carlos Carvalho

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Introduction: Endoscopic ultrasound-guided choledochoduodenostomy (EUS-CD) to drain the gallbladder can be a palliative care procedure for non-surgical oncologic patients with cholelithiasis and cholangitis process. Case description: A 59-years old Caucasian male diagnosed with extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma with multiple liver, lung and peritoneum metastasis, unresponsive to treatment with gemcitabine/cisplatin, presented in the institution with fever, hypotension, and severe upper right abdominal pain secondary to cholelithiasis and cholangitis process. The patient was admitted and started on large spectrum antibiotics plus fluid-challenge. Afterward, a percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage (PTBD) was performed to drain the gallbladder. This procedure temporarily stabilized the patient. However, the definitive solution required gallbladder removal. Since the patient exhibited an advanced oncologic disease and poor response to the chemotherapy, he was not a candidate for surgical intervention. Diagnostic Pathways: A self-expanding metal stent was placed from the duodenum into the bile duct by endoscopic ultrasound-guided. The stent allowed efficient drainage of the contrast from the gallbladder at the end of the endoscopic procedure. Conclusion and Discussion: The stent allowed efficient drainage of the contrast from the gallbladder at the end of the endoscopic procedure and successfully reversed the cholangitis process. EUS-CD is an effective and safe technique and can be used as a palliative care procedure for non-surgical oncologic patients.

Keywords: palliative care, cholangiocarcinoma, choledochoduodenostomy, endoscopic ultrasound-guided

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Authors: Ravinder Kaur

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Introduction Global cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) mapping is a promising clinical assessment for stress-testing the brain using physiological challenges, such as CO₂, to elicit changes in perfusion. It enables real-time assessment of cerebrovascular integrity and health. Conventional imaging approaches solely use steady-state parameters, like cerebral blood flow (CBF), to evaluate the integrity of the resting parenchyma and can erroneously show a healthy brain at rest, despite the underlying pathogenesis in the presence of cerebrovascular disease. Conversely, coupling CO₂ inhalation with phase-contrast MRI neuroimaging interrogates the capacity of the vasculature to respond to changes under stress. It shows promise in providing prognostic value as a novel health marker to measure neurovascular function in disease and to detect early brain vasculature dysfunction. Objective This exploratory study was established to:(a) quantify the CBF response to CO₂ in hypocapnia and hypercapnia,(b) evaluate disparities in CVR between internal carotid (ICA) and vertebral artery (VA), and (c) assess sex-specific variation in CVR. Methodology Phase-contrast MRI was employed to measure the cerebrovascular reactivity to CO₂ (±10 mmHg). The respiratory interventions were presented using the prospectively end-tidal targeting RespirActTM Gen3 system. Post-processing and statistical analysis were conducted. Results In 9 young, healthy subjects, the CBF increased from hypocapnia to hypercapnia in all vessels (4.21±0.76 to 7.20±1.83 mL/sec in ICA, 1.36±0.55 to 2.33±1.31 mL/sec in VA, p < 0.05). The CVR was quantitatively higher in ICA than VA (slope of linear regression: 0.23 vs. 0.07 mL/sec/mmHg, p < 0.05). No statistically significant effect was observed in CVR between male and female (0.25 vs 0.20 mL/sec/mmHg in ICA, 0.09 vs 0.11 mL/sec/mmHg in VA, p > 0.05). Conclusions The principal finding in this investigation validated the modulation of CBF by CO₂. Moreover, it has indicated that regional heterogeneity in hemodynamic response exists in the brain. This study provides scope to standardize the quantification of CVR prior to its clinical translation.

Keywords: cerebrovascular disease, neuroimaging, phase contrast MRI, cerebrovascular reactivity, carbon dioxide

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Authors: B.Shukir, H.Woo, P.Barzo, D.Kis

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Preoperative brain mapping in tumors involving the speech areas has an important role to reduce surgical risks. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is the gold standard method to localize cortical speech areas preoperatively, but its availability in clinical routine is difficult. Diffusion MRI based probabilistic tractography is available in head MRI. It’s used to segment cortical subregions by their structural connectivity. In our study, we used probabilistic tractography to localize the frontal and temporal cortical speech areas. 15 patients with left frontal tumor were enrolled to our study. Speech fMRI and diffusion MRI acquired preoperatively. The standard automated anatomical labelling atlas 3 (AAL3) cortical atlas used to define 76 left frontal and 118 left temporal potential speech areas. 4 types of tractography were run according to the structural connection of these regions to the left arcuate fascicle (FA) to localize those cortical areas which have speech functions: 1, frontal through FA; 2, frontal with FA; 3, temporal to FA; 4, temporal with FA connections were determined. Thresholds of 1%, 5%, 10% and 15% applied. At each level, the number of affected frontal and temporal regions by fMRI and tractography were defined, the sensitivity and specificity were calculated. At the level of 1% threshold showed the best results. Sensitivity was 61,631,4% and 67,1523,12%, specificity was 87,210,4% and 75,611,37% for frontal and temporal regions, respectively. From our study, we conclude that probabilistic tractography is a reliable preoperative technique to localize cortical speech areas. However, its results are not feasible that the neurosurgeon rely on during the operation.

Keywords: brain mapping, brain tumor, fMRI, probabilistic tractography

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Authors: Shankha Sanyal, Archi Banerjee, Sayan Biswas, Sourya Sengupta, Sayan Nag, Ranjan Sengupta, Dipak Ghosh

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The term ‘gestalt’ has been widely used in the field of psychology which defined the perception of human mind to group any object not in part but as a 'unified' whole. Music, in general, is polyphonic - i.e. a combination of a number of pure tones (frequencies) mixed together in a manner that sounds harmonious. The study of human brain response due to different frequency groups of the acoustic signal can give us an excellent insight regarding the neural and functional architecture of brain functions. Hence, the study of music cognition using neuro-biosensors is becoming a rapidly emerging field of research. In this work, we have tried to analyze the effect of different frequency bands of music on the various frequency rhythms of human brain obtained from EEG data. Four widely popular Rabindrasangeet clips were subjected to Wavelet Transform method for extracting five resonant frequency bands from the original music signal. These frequency bands were initially analyzed with Detrended/Adaptive Fractal analysis (DFA/AFA) methods. A listening test was conducted on a pool of 100 respondents to assess the frequency band in which the music becomes non-recognizable. Next, these resonant frequency bands were presented to 20 subjects as auditory stimulus and EEG signals recorded simultaneously in 19 different locations of the brain. The recorded EEG signals were noise cleaned and subjected again to DFA/AFA technique on the alpha, theta and gamma frequency range. Thus, we obtained the scaling exponents from the two methods in alpha, theta and gamma EEG rhythms corresponding to different frequency bands of music. From the analysis of music signal, it is seen that loss of recognition is proportional to the loss of long range correlation in the signal. From the EEG signal analysis, we obtain frequency specific arousal based response in different lobes of brain as well as in specific EEG bands corresponding to musical stimuli. In this way, we look to identify a specific frequency band beyond which the music becomes non-recognizable and below which in spite of the absence of other bands the music is perceivable to the audience. This revelation can be of immense importance when it comes to the field of cognitive music therapy and researchers of creativity.

Keywords: AFA, DFA, EEG, gestalt in music, Hurst exponent

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Authors: Rishabh Ambavanekar

Abstract:

Expressive Aphasia (EA) is an oral disability, common among stroke victims, in which the Broca’s area of the brain is damaged, interfering with verbal communication abilities. EA currently has no technological solutions and its only current viable solutions are inefficient or only available to the affluent. This prompts the need for an affordable, innovative solution to facilitate recovery and assist in speech generation. This project proposes a novel concept: using a wearable low-cost electroencephalography (EEG) device-based brain-computer interface (BCI) to translate a user’s inner dialogue into words. A low-cost EEG device was developed and found to be 10 to 100 times less expensive than any current EEG device on the market. As part of the BCI, a machine learning (ML) model was developed and trained using the EEG data. Two stages of testing were conducted to analyze the effectiveness of the device: a proof-of-concept and a final solution test. The proof-of-concept test demonstrated an average accuracy of above 90% and the final solution test demonstrated an average accuracy of above 75%. These two successful tests were used as a basis to demonstrate the viability of BCI research in developing lower-cost verbal communication devices. Additionally, the device proved to not only enable users to verbally communicate but has the potential to also assist in accelerated recovery from the disorder.

Keywords: neurotechnology, brain-computer interface, neuroscience, human-machine interface, BCI, HMI, aphasia, verbal disability, stroke, low-cost, machine learning, ML, image recognition, EEG, signal analysis

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Authors: Mohammad Khazaei, Reza Rostami, Hasan Gharayagh Zandi, Rouhollah Basatnia, Mahbubeh Ghayour Najafabadi

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Objective: Methylphenidate has been demonstrated to enhance attention and cognitive processes, and placebo treatments have also been found to improve attention and cognitive processes. Additionally, methylphenidate may have positive effects on motion perception and sports performance. Nevertheless, additional research is needed to fully comprehend the neural mechanisms underlying the effects of methylphenidate and placebo on cognitive and motor functions. Methods: In this randomized controlled trial, 18 young semi-professional basketball players aged 18-23 years were randomly and equally assigned to either a Ritalin or Placebo group. The participants performed 20 consecutive free throws; their scores were recorded on a 0-3 scale. The participants’ brain activity was recorded using electroencephalography (EEG) for 5 minutes seated with their eyes closed. The Ritalin group received a 10 mg dose of methylphenidate, while the Placebo group received a 10mg dose of placebo. The EEG was obtained 90 minutes after the drug was administere Results: There was no significant difference in the absolute power of brain waves between the pre-test and post-tests in the Placebo group. However, in the Ritalin group, a significant difference in the absolute power of brain waves was observed in the Theta band (5-6 Hz) and Beta band (21-30 Hz) between pre- and post-tests in Fp2, F8, and Fp1. In these areas, the absolute power of Beta waves was higher during the post-test than during the pre-test. The Placebo group showed a more significant difference in free throw scores than the Ritalin group. Conclusions: In conclusion, these results suggest that Ritalin effect on brain activity in areas associated with attention and cognitive processes, as well as improve basketball free throws. However, there was no significant placebo effect on brain activity performance, but it significantly affected the improvement of free throws. Further research is needed to fully understand the effects of methylphenidate and placebo on cognitive and motor functions.

Keywords: methylphenidate, placebo effect, electroencephalography, basketball free throw

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Authors: Mariam G. Eshak, Ahmed Abbas, M. I. El-Sabry, M. M. Mashaly

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This investigation was conducted to determine the physiological response and evaluate the expression of inflammatory and cell death genes and DNA damage induced by endotoxic shock in laying hens. Endotoxic shock was induced by a single intravenous injection of 107 Escherichia coli (E. coli,) colony/hen. In the present study, 240 forty-week-old laying hens (H&N) were randomly assigned into 2 groups with 3 replicates of 40 birds each. Hens were reared in battery cages with wire floors in an open-sided housing system under natural conditions. Housing and general management practices were similar for all groups. At 42-wk of age, 45 hens from the first group (15 replicate) were infected with E. coli, while the same number of hens from the second group was injected with saline and served as a control. Heat shock protein-70 (HSP-70) expression, plasma corticosterone concentration, body temperature, and the gene expression of bax, caspase-3 activity, P38, Interlukin-1β (Il-1β), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) genes and DNA damage in the brain and liver were measured. Hens treated with E. coli showed significant (P≤0.05) increase of body temperature by 1.2 ᴼC and plasma corticosterone by 3 folds compared to the controls. Further, hens injected with E.Coli showed markedly over-expression of HSP-70 and increase DNA damage in brain and liver. These results were synchronized with activating cell death program since our data showed significant (P≤0.05) high expression of bax and caspase-3 activity genes in the brain and liver. These results were related to remarkable over-inflammation gene expression of P38, IL-1β, and TNF-α in brain and liver. In conclusion, our results indicate that endotoxic shock induces inflammatory physiological response and triggers cell death program by promoting P38, IL-1β, and TNF-α gene expression in the brain and liver.

Keywords: chicken, DNA damage, Escherichia coli, gene expression, inflammation

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Authors: Igwenagu Chinelo Mercy

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This study is on the concept of Neurostatistics in relation to neuroscience. Neuroscience also known as neurobiology is the scientific study of the nervous system. In the study of neuroscience, it has been noted that brain function and its relations to the process of acquiring knowledge and behaviour can be better explained by the use of various interrelated methods. The scope of neuroscience has broadened over time to include different approaches used to study the nervous system at different scales. On the other hand, Neurostatistics based on this study is viewed as a statistical concept that uses similar techniques of neuron mechanisms to solve some problems especially in the field of life science. This study is imperative in this era of Artificial intelligence/Machine leaning in the sense that clear understanding of the technique and its proper application could assist in solving some medical disorder that are mainly associated with the nervous system. This will also help in layman’s understanding of the technique of the nervous system in order to overcome some of the health challenges associated with it. For this concept to be well understood, an illustrative example using a brain associated disorder was used for demonstration. Structural equation modelling was adopted in the analysis. The results clearly show the link between the techniques of statistical model and nervous system. Hence, based on this study, the appropriateness of Neurostatistics application in relation to neuroscience could be based on the understanding of the behavioural pattern of both concepts.

Keywords: brain, neurons, neuroscience, neurostatistics, structural equation modeling

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Authors: Syed Toqueer Akhter, Hussain Hamid

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Over the last few decades an upward trend has been observed in the case of labor migration from Pakistan. The emigrants are not just economically motivated and in search of a safe living environment towards more developed countries in Europe, North America and Middle East. The opportunity cost of migration comes in the form of brain drain that is the loss of qualified and skilled human capital. Throughout the history of Pakistan, situations of political instability have emerged ranging from violation of political rights, political disappearances to political assassinations. Providing security to the citizens is a major issue faced in Pakistan due to increase in crime and terrorist activities. The aim of the study is to test the impact of political instability, appearing in the form of political terror, violation of political rights and civil liberty on skilled migration of labor. Three proxies are used to measure the political instability; political terror scale (based on a scale of 1-5, the political terror and violence that a country encounters in a particular year), political rights (a rating of 1-7, that describes political rights as the ability for the people to participate without restraint in political process) and civil liberty (a rating of 1-7, civil liberty is defined as the freedom of expression and rights without government intervention). Using time series data from 1980-2011, the distributed lag models were used for estimation because migration is not a onetime process, previous events and migration can lead to more migration. Our research clearly shows that political instability appearing in the form of political terror, political rights and civil liberty all appeared significant in explaining the extent of skilled migration of Pakistan.

Keywords: skilled labor migration, political terror, political rights, civil liberty, distributed lag model

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Authors: Rahul Jain, Jagdish Chander, Anish Gupta

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Introduction: Laparoscopic common bile duct exploration (LCBDE) allows cholecystectomy and the removal of common bile duct (CBD) stones to be performed during the same sitting, thereby decreasing hospital stay. CBD exploration through choledochotomy can be closed primarily with an absorbable suture material, but can lead to biliary leakage postoperatively. In this study we tried to find a solution to further lower the incidence of bile leakage by using fibrin glue to reinforce the sutures put on choledochotomy suture line. It has haemostatic and sealing action, through strengthening the last step of the physiological coagulation and biostimulation, which favours the formation of new tissue matrix. Methodology: This study was conducted at a tertiary care teaching hospital in New Delhi, India, from 2011 to 2013. 20 patients with CBD stones documented on MRCP with CBD diameter of 9 mm or more were included in this study. Patients were randomized into two groups namely Group A in which choledochotomy was closed with polyglactin 4-0 suture and suture line reinforced with fibrin glue, and Group ‘B’ in which choledochotomy was closed with polyglactin 4-0 suture alone. Both the groups were evaluated and compared on clinical parameters such as operative time, drain content, drain output, no. of days drain was required, blood loss & transfusion requirements, length of postoperative hospital stay and conversion to open surgery. Results: The operative time for Group A ranged from 60 to 210 min (mean 131.50 min) and Group B 65 to 300 min (mean 140 minutes). The blood loss in group A ranged from 10 to 120 ml (mean 51.50 ml), in group B it ranged from 10 to 200 ml (mean 53.50 ml). In Group A, there was no case of bile leak but there was bile leak in 2 cases in Group B, minimum 0 and maximum 900 ml with a mean of 97 ml and p value of 0.147 with no statistically significant difference in bile leak in test and control groups. The minimum and maximum serous drainage in Group A was nil & 80 ml (mean 11 ml) and in Group B was nil & 270 ml (mean 72.50 ml). The p value came as 0.028 which is statistically significant. Thus serous leakage in Group A was significantly less than in Group B. The drains in Group A were removed from 2 to 4 days (mean: 3 days) while in Group B from 2 to 9 days (mean: 3.9 days). The patients in Group A stayed in hospital post operatively from 3 to 8 days (mean: 5.30) while in Group B it ranged from 3 to 10 days with a mean of 5 days. Conclusion: Fibrin glue application on CBD decreases bile leakage but in statistically insignificant manner. Fibrin glue application on CBD can significantly decrease post operative serous drainage after LCBDE. Fibrin glue application on CBD is safe and easy technique without any significant adverse effects and can help less experienced surgeons performing LCBDE.

Keywords: bile leak, fibrin glue, LCBDE, serous leak

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Authors: Toshitaka Higashino, Naoki Wakamiya

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Human beings perform a task by perceiving information from outside, recognizing them, and responding them. There have been various attempts to analyze and understand internal processes behind the reaction to a given stimulus by conducting psychological experiments and analysis from multiple perspectives. Among these, we focused on Model Human Processor (MHP). However, it was built based on psychological experiments and thus the relation with brain activity was unclear so far. To verify the validity of the MHP and propose our model from a viewpoint of neuroscience, EEG (Electroencephalography) measurements are performed during experiments in this study. More specifically, first, experiments were conducted where Latin alphabet characters were used as visual stimuli. In addition to response time, ERPs (event-related potentials) such as N100 and P300 were measured by using EEG. By comparing cycle time predicted by the MHP and latency of ERPs, it was found that N100, related to perception of stimuli, appeared at the end of the perceptual processor. Furthermore, by conducting an additional experiment, it was revealed that P300, related to decision making, appeared during the response decision process, not at the end. Second, by experiments using Japanese Hiragana characters, i.e. Japan's own phonetic symbols, those findings were confirmed. Finally, Japanese Kanji characters were used as more complicated visual stimuli. A Kanji character usually has several readings and several meanings. Despite the difference, a reading-related task and a meaning-related task exhibited similar results, meaning that they involved similar information processing processes of the brain. Based on those results, our model was proposed which reflects response time and ERP latency. It consists of three processors: the perception processor from an input of a stimulus to appearance of N100, the cognitive processor from N100 to P300, and the decision-action processor from P300 to response. Using our model, an application system which reflects brain activity can be established.

Keywords: brain activity, EEG, information processing model, model human processor

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Authors: Clea Southall

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Many children leave primary school having formed preconceptions about their relationship with science. Thus, primary school represents a critical window for stimulating scientific interest in younger children. Engagement relies on the provision of hands-on activities coupled with an ability to capture a child’s innate curiosity. This requires children to perceive science topics as interesting and relevant to their everyday life. Teachers and pupils alike have suggested the school curriculum be tailored to help stimulate scientific interest. Young children are naturally inquisitive about the human body; the brain is one topic which frequently engages pupils, although it is not currently included in the UK primary curriculum. Teaching children about the brain could have wider societal impacts such as increasing knowledge of neurological disorders. However, many primary school teachers do not receive formal neuroscience training and may feel apprehensive about delivering lessons on the nervous system. This is exacerbated by a lack of educational neuroscience resources. One solution is for undergraduates to form partnerships with schools - delivering engaging lessons and supplementing teacher knowledge. The aim of this project was to evaluate the success of a short lesson on the brain delivered by an undergraduate neuroscientist to primary school pupils. Prior to entering schools, semi-structured online interviews were conducted with teachers to gain pedagogical advice and relevant websites were searched for neuroscience resources. Subsequently, a single lesson plan was created comprising of four hands-on activities. The activities were devised in a top-down manner, beginning with learning about the brain as an entity, before focusing on individual neurons. Students were asked to label a ‘brain map’ to assess prior knowledge of brain structure and function. They viewed animal brains and created ‘pipe-cleaner neurons’ which were later used to depict electrical transmission. The same session was delivered by an undergraduate student to 570 key stage 2 (KS2) pupils across five schools in Leeds, UK. Post-session surveys, designed for teachers and pupils respectively, were used to evaluate the session. Children in all year groups had relatively poor knowledge of brain structure and function at the beginning of the session. When asked to label four brain regions with their respective functions, older pupils labeled a mean of 1.5 (± 1.0) brain regions compared to 0.8 (± 0.96) for younger pupils (p=0.002). However, by the end of the session, 95% of pupils felt their knowledge of the brain had increased. Hands-on activities were rated most popular by pupils and were considered the most successful aspect of the session by teachers. Although only half the teachers were aware of neuroscience educational resources, nearly all (95%) felt they would have more confidence in teaching a similar session in the future. All teachers felt the session was engaging and that the content could be linked to the current curriculum. Thus, a short fifty-minute session can successfully enhance pupils’ knowledge of a new topic: the brain. Partnerships with an undergraduate student can provide an alternative method for supplementing teacher knowledge, increasing their confidence in delivering future lessons on the nervous system.

Keywords: education, neuroscience, primary school, undergraduate

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Authors: David Edgar

Abstract:

To understand how the brain’s subconscious and conscious functions, we must conquer the physics of Unity, which leads to duality’s algorithm. Where the subconscious (bottom-up) and conscious (top-down) processes function together to produce and consume intelligence, we use terms like ‘time is relative,’ but we really do understand the meaning. In the brain, there are different processes and, therefore, different observers. These different processes experience time at different rates. A sensory system such as the eyes cycles measurement around 33 milliseconds, the conscious process of the frontal lobe cycles at 300 milliseconds, and the subconscious process of the thalamus cycle at 5 milliseconds. Three different observers experience time differently. To bridge observers, the thalamus, which is the fastest of the processes, maintains a synchronous state and entangles the different components of the brain’s physical process. The entanglements form a synchronous cohesion between the brain components allowing them to share the same state and execute in the same measurement cycle. The thalamus uses the shared state to control the firing sequence of the brain’s linear subconscious process. Sharing state also allows the brain to cheat on the amount of sensory data that must be exchanged between components. Only unpredictable motion is transferred through the synchronous state because predictable motion already exists in the shared framework. The brain’s synchronous subconscious process is entirely based on energy conservation, where prediction regulates energy usage. So, the eyes every 33 milliseconds dump their sensory data into the thalamus every day. The thalamus is going to perform a motion measurement to identify the unpredictable motion in the sensory data. Here is the trick. The thalamus conducts its measurement based on the original observation time of the sensory system (33 ms), not its own process time (5 ms). This creates a data payload of synchronous motion that preserves the original sensory observation. Basically, a frozen moment in time (Flat 4D). The single moment in time can then be processed through the single state maintained by the synchronous process. Other processes, such as consciousness (300 ms), can interface with the synchronous state to generate awareness of that moment. Now, synchronous data traveling through a separate faster synchronous process creates a theoretical time tunnel where observation time is tunneled through the synchronous process and is reproduced on the other side in the original time-relativity. The synchronous process eliminates time dilation by simply removing itself from the equation so that its own process time does not alter the experience. To the original observer, the measurement appears to be instantaneous, but in the thalamus, a linear subconscious process generating sensory perception and thought production is being executed. It is all just occurring in the time available because other observation times are slower than thalamic measurement time. For life to exist in the physical universe requires a linear measurement process, it just hides by operating at a faster time relativity. What’s interesting is time dilation is not the problem; it’s the solution. Einstein said there was no universal time.

Keywords: neural synchronization, natural intelligence, 99.95% IoT data transmission savings, artificial subconscious intelligence (ASI)

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